• Considering social structure for the inhabitant: This could well be one of the more contentious parts of the article. Here we consider single species (multiple conspecifics) and multi-species (multiple conspecifics of each species). Regularly we encounter problems at the shop when young reptiles (particularly lizards) are sold together. Without a doubt the worst offender has to be Bearded Dragons (Pogona Vitticeps). Multiple stressors have been associated with ill-advised social structure within vivaria. For example research on this subject was carried out on Green Anoles (Anolis Carolinensis) – (Greenberg 1984). Development of social dominance hierarchies was noticed in the laboratory. This dominance was reinforced by aggressive actions towards subordinate males in the same enclosure. This aggression was not limited only to the males, females permanently exposed to over-bearing incessant sexual dominance led to suppressed reproductive activity. Because of the space restricted enclosure flight mechanisms usually used to escape such situations could not be effectively utilized.

It also becomes fairly obvious that species which are naturally territorial and therefore non – communal (certainly not within space restricted captive confines) be permanently housed together under any circumstances. By housing them together we may create possible lifestyle infractions such as access to optimal basking sites (thermo-regulatory activity) and adequate food consumption (although food consumption is not necessarily a pre-cursor to indicate health. A stressed animal can enter a catabolic state when exposed to a stressor it cannot over-come or resist. To be a dominant animal is therefore the ultimate goal of subordinate males/females. This cannot be achieved within the confines of the enclosure and therefore this becomes a stressor that cannot be overcome. Continuous exposure may lead an animal into the exhaustion phase of stress).

A reptile’s social interactions may determine activity/suppression of the immune system due to lab proven raised corticosteroid concentrations in subordinate Anolis lizards mentioned above. Such hierarchies are not necessarily confined to male only conspecific disputes. I have personally seen such hierarchies develop in a harem of Female Bearded Dragons (Pogona Vitticeps). A particularly large female occupied the optimum basking site when required by physical displacement of other females. Food intake was markedly higher of both animate and inanimate foodstuffs. It was also noted upon introductions of the male she always was the first to fall gravid. A hypothesis would be that due to being dominant and possibly having (no scientific tests were carried out) a lower corticosteroid concentration her reproductive activity/receptivity was higher. Fertility was also noticeably higher in this female. Could this be due to the affor-mentioned receptivity of sexual advances or a reduction in potency in the male with the other females (or possibly a combination of the two factors)?

Research into a potential animal’s care prior to purchase is therefore imperative to ensure you do not expose naturally solitary species to captive social structures that could potentially have a profound effect upon an animal’s quality of life. This information may not necessarily be forthcoming from shops or breeders, ot6her motives may well be at play.

A worthwhile decision would ultimately be to purchase the dominant animal from a vivarium. The largest, most alert, brightest and best condition animal would be the best option. However cute and sleepy the ‘runt’ maybe I doubt that the ‘settling in process’ would be as smooth as with an already dominant animal. Principally do not inherit a shop or breeders’ problem animal.

Territorial species or groups regularly seen in private homes include; Chameleons (Chamaeleo, Bradypodion, Furcifer etc), Iguanids (Anolis, Iguana, Basiliscus etc) and Agamids (Pogona, Agama, Crotophytus, Physignathus etc). Species that in the wild may not be territorial yet may still develop antagonistic tendencies when confined to vivaria with conspecifics certainly of the same sex include; Gekkos (Eublepharis, Gekko, Rhacodactylus, Hemitheconyx etc), Teiids (Tupinambis, Ameiva etc), Skinks (Scincus, Novoeumeces, Eumeces, Riopa, Tiliqua etc).

Territoriality occurs between male specimens from of all three of the ‘non-territorial groups, namely Argentine Black and White Tegu (Tubinambis Merinae), Berber Skink (Novoeumeces Schneideri), Fire Skink (Riopa Fernandi) and New Caledonian Crested Geckos (Rhacodacylus Ciliatus). On certain occasions females were present, other times they were not. In a particularly heated fight between two male Berber Skinks over foodstuffs, the animals had to be separated as the smaller male had severe tears to front leg skin.

When considering mixed species vivaria much of the above remains applicable but an added danger of illness may become present. What may be termed a ‘commensal’ germ, parasite or bacteria in one species may well be pathogenic in another. Certainly it would seem logical that species which originate from other countries or continents would be more likely to have this problem. Species from a country with similar biome requirements would be more likely to succeed due to the fact that parasites, germs and bacteria are more likely to be similar and therefore a built in immuno-response to these factors would already be present. Principally don’t just throw species together with out first researching biome requirement and country of origin. Quite amazingly a store near me deemed it acceptable to house African Spurred Tortoises (Geochelone Sulcatta) with Yemeni Chameleons (Chamaeleo Calyptratus) – the mind boggles sometimes, honestly!

Considerations for breeding the inhabitant:

When researching an animal’s reproductive cycle prior to implementing a breeding strategy, species-specific data must be used. Most animals must be put through some sort of season to induce copulatory activity and young as a result. During this period spermatogenesis (males) and oogenesis (females) occurs. Triggers for these processes include reduction in temperatures (day time high, night time low or both) or an increases daily exposure to cooler (non normal) temperatures. Also used, as cues are light cycle (generally daylight hours reduce and cooler temperature coincide with ‘night’ periods and humidity (in my experience, where appropriate humidity increases triggering a breeding response Such as increased sexual activity in Green Tree Pythons during spring time thunderstorms – Paul Thompson Per Comms).

Initial considerations will be for temperature changes to induce a hibernation/brumation period. In nature this naturally occurring process induces normal reduction in immuno-response. The complicating factors f an ‘induced’ brumation could be that an animal in an unfit state of health be put through a catabolic process, this could see the onset of illness, infection or death. Considerations should include recently acquired animals which may not have settled into their new home and subsequently not gained sufficient fat stores to go through a protracted period (4-5 months in some Chelonids) of zero food intake. At this point nutritional considerations must be made about the past year leading up to brumation (nutrition is discussed later). At no point should an animal about whose fat stores, general physical condition and well being you have doubts be exposed to such a process.  This may well have been the cause of so many European Tortoises failing to come out of hibernaculum. Improper diet and nutritional needs, a lack of basic husbandry and species understanding coupled with exposure to severe sub-optimal temperatures will have no doubt be intrinsic to their downfall

Other considerations for stressor type/presence during breeding trials also include repeated/ habitual sexual advances by over-zealous conspecific males. Possibly leading to reduced fecundancy in females and sensitization to a males advances (further increasing corticosteroid concentrations). Another closely related concern would be the exhaustion of both parties during these periods (especially when continuous exposure is a problem). See below:

Repeated sexual advances once the female has been ‘caught’ (this pertains mainly to lizards as it is commonly accepted that snake litter fertility benefits from repeated copulations – although this may be worth future consideration – when is enough enough?) may serve to raise corticosteroid concentrations. This is also a time when a female will need to utilize optimum basking areas and consume for food stuffs (pertinent really only in the first half of gestation period), by having cage mates present induce a conflict of thermo-regulatory activity and nutrition? Another consideration for breeding reptiles in captivity is the provision of nesting sites. On occasion snakes and lizard will deposit eggs in the water bowl or just seem too randomly dump them around the vivarium. Rejecting a nesting site that is provided either because it is:

• Too big or too small
• Too warm or too cool
• Too humid or too dry
• Too insecure and therefore non trustworthy to hide the eggs.

Surely this must induce a level of desperation and therefore stress as the day of parturition draws ever closer. Where possible multiple laying sites must be provided to therefore reduce the risk of random parturition around the enclosure, where if the ova are not found relatively quickly they will surely perish. Experimentation in the first seasons breeding activities of a particular species will help you ascertain what your female is looking for in a nesting site. Having the male present permanently other complicating issues such as not expecting eggs, noticing breeding activity and therefore having a total lack of preparation for the females needs. Periodic introductions where dates are kept will allow keepers to more closely monitor an animal’s behaviour for cues such as the list below to allow adequate preparation for impending oviposition.

• Roaming
• Digging (lizards)
• Extended (from the norm) periods basking
• Rolling or sunning of the stomach (Snakes)
• Increased food intake (lizards)
• Reduced or total refusal of food (snakes)
• Pre-egg laying sheds (snakes)
• Distension of abdominal walls (due to the presence of growing ova)
• Heightened aggression (not always present)

An understanding through research is imperative before instigating breeding trials to give you time scales to prepare you for the eggs or young. A serious consideration of any female animal’s (including humans) stress levels during gestation is of paramount importance.

Facts, time scales and seasonality for individual species varies greatly, factors of importance include:

1. Period when food intake must stop prior to instigating brumation
2. Month when brumation period starts.
3. Duration taken to cool to minimum brumation temperatures
4. Duration of minimum brumation temperatures (and minimum temperature values – usually in text a window is provided such as: 10-15 C)
5. Duration taken to warm back up to standard ‘normal’ thermal gradient
6. Period from reaching normal temperatures to first feed/s
7. Period from reaching normal temperatures to first shedding of skin.
8. Period from reaching normal temperatures to first introduction of mate (assuming this hasn’t already been done. Tropical Boas and Pythons copulate mid way through brumation.)
9. How often and for how long a mate is introduced for
10. Period from ovulation to parturition
11. Period from pre-egg laying shed to parturition.
12. Period when nesting site/s should be introduced to the vivaria.
13. Period when digging/roaming activities occur to parturition.

Part of conscientious breeding and not ‘suck it and see’ practices is researching as much of the above as possible. I know for example say if I wanted to breed a Common Boa (Boa Constrictor Imperator), I could post a list of the above questions (where applicable to that species) on an active online forum and have most of them answered (usually on multiple occasions) within 24 hours. People’s experiences vary yet species-specific data usually remains within numbers, dates, days of one another. Take the median you would still be better informed than before.

Periodically we have animals brought into the shop where they are literally skin and bone. These once heavily built animals (usually Corn Snakes – Pantherophis Guttatus and Bearded Dragons – Pogona Vitticeps.)come into the store with the owner asking

“What’s wrong with her?”

(For the duration of this example I will be using the multiple Bearded Dragon females we encounter during the season.)

After further questioning it transpires she has had in rapid succession a number of litters of eggs (up to six in a season.) each of reduced fertility than the previous. The male is co-housed permanently with the female and is usually not removed at any point. Convalescence, recharged fat and calcium stores and good old-fashioned rest are an impossibility. Within a fortnight she has been ‘caught’ again and not only is she pregnant for the second, third, fourth (etc) time she must endure repeated sexual advances by the male during gestation. Come the end of the season (usually when we are presented with such animals) it is amazing she is still alive (and devastatingly if the permanent cohabitation isn’t changed death is a very real fear). Quite possibly through reckless (or ignorant) breeding practices owners have forced their animal into the ‘exhaustion’ phase of stress. If the male was housed elsewhere this could so easily be avoided although this generally isn’t a popular suggestion because heaven forbid they may need to buy a second enclosure and rig! Maybe a better starting point would not be buying the second animal for the single enclosure in the first place.

Vivarium Style for the inhabitant:

Two styles of enclosure in captivity generally exist, semi or Pseudo-naturalistic enclosures and minimalist or clinical style enclosures.

Pseudo-naturalistic enclosures would be considered:

• Medium to large in size
• Beech Chip, Orchid Bark, Aspen shavings, Coco chip, Corncob (Maize) or sand as a substrate. Never really achieving naturalistic status but a means of providing either rugged or loose or dry or moist substrata dependant upon species biome.
• Provision of climbing apparatus where applicable (although woods generally non-indigenous to the animals country of origin
• Provision of plants, invariably artificial and non representative of indigenous plant life from the country of origin
• Provision of various seclusion areas by means of an artificial hide or hides. Cork Bark flats or tubes, resin caves, flower pots or upturned cat litter trays.
• Occasionally the provision of aesthetically pleasing (human perspective) apparatus although doubtful as to the benefit of the reptile. Skulls, aquarium ornamentation and so on.

It is worth that truly naturalistic enclosures are rarely if ever encountered, even in zoological institutions. Sometimes procurement of indigenous plant, tree and substrate materials may prove difficult either through legislation or cost.

Minimalist or clinical enclosures would be considered:

• Small or medium in size
• Paper substrate
• No climbing provisions
• A single or in some cases total lack of seclusion provision
• No plant life (artificial or real

This section is mainly based around the growing use of rack system type enclosures utilized by private breeders. Due to the low light largely hidden boxes it is often seen that seclusion is provided this way and the provision of hides superfluous.

When considering which type of enclosure is to be provided for an animal its care will either lends itself to the clinical style or not. It is accepted that certain types of reptile can be maintained in both types of enclosures with success (many snake and some gecko species), although other animals simply would not fare well at all in the Spartan clinical approach. For example I doubt anyone would maintain Chameleon species in such enclosures. Their cryptic colouration and reliance upon camouflage would seriously induce a stress response, a lack of feeding success and a lack of cryptic security. Indeed it may well be the case that all reptiles can be maintained in pseudo-naturalistic enclosures where as only some adapt to care in minimalist setups or rack systems.

Snakes seem in a general sense to adapt best to rack systems. That said, as with all these section there are exceptions.  A few examples of species, which would rarely fair well in these conditions are:

• Coachwhip Snakes (Masticophis)
• American, African, Asiatic and European Racers (Coluber)
• South American Rat Racers (Spiloites & Pseustes)
• Red Tail Racers (Gonyosoma)

All these species have common features, they are highly alert and would be considered fast by snake standards. The flight (and occasionally fight) response is usually well developed. Masticophis and American Colubers are well known for self-inflicted rostral abrasions when speeding round the enclosure trying to escape the approaching human. This is usually aided by the provision of too small an enclosure for such active species and the lack of adequate seclusion areas. Granted that none of the above species would be considered for beginners but research into species-specific care will illustrate whether a species should/could be kept in a rack type environment.

Considerations for the presence and severity of stress are important. Researchers would consider the use of non-naturalistic or aberrant behaviours characteristic of environmental stress. Preliminary research showed that clinically maintained enclosures, which are cleaned regularly and more efficiently than naturalistic enclosures could pose problems from an immuno-response perspective. Pseudo-naturalistic enclosures due to the nature of the substrate and presence of ‘furniture’ pose difficulty in daily cleaning. As a result low-level pathogen presence is usually the case. This low level resistance(s) keeps the immune system active and responsive. When coupled with a naturalistic enclosure, which promotes normal ‘natural’, activities and therefore lower cortico-steroid concentrations allows the animal to achieve a greater resilience/resistance to pathogenic threats. Conversely it is proposed that the generally clean clinical/minimalist style lacks the above immuno-activity through pathogenic absence or severely reduced concentrations. Therefore if/when a pathogenic infection becomes present the immune system’s resistance to this threat is far weaker. Due to the lack of room or encouragement of naturalistic behaviours environmental stress is said to occur in clinical environments. Stimuli for foraging, burrowing, flight or fight response may be greatly diminished, therefore increasing cortico-steriod concentrations. Research was conducted which proved put the above. The idea was to induce a forced pathogen infection in animals maintained in both type of enclosure. Animals from pseudo-naturalistic enclosures had to be temporarily re-housed in clinical enclosures to definitely infect them, so high was their resilience. Obviously no such resilience was present in clinical/minimalist care. In conclusions as long as the clinical ‘clean’ care remains, well clinical and clean problems should not be encountered. However if a pathogen infection became present a far more abrupt decline in health would be expected than for those housed in pseudo-naturalistic care.

Examples of environmental stress noted to have occurred in both types of enclosure include:

(I do however feel that the opinion of one person as to one of these factors below may differ to another. What may be considered hyperactive for example to one person may be seen as normal roaming behaviour to another.)

·         Interactions with glass or transparent boundaries

(An example of this would be the several severe rostral abrasions and wounds I have witnessed in Chinese Water Dragons – Physignathus Cocincintus. Lack of recognition of transparent boundries and a well developed flight response being the causatory factors)

·         Hyperactivity (relative to species)

(For example the species listed above are naturally alert and may be considered as hyperactive. How do you quantify hyperactivity when activity levels differ from species to species?)

·         Hypoactivity (relative to species)

(For example Blood Pythons – Python Curtus are naturally sedentary and mostly inactive and would therefore be considered naturally hypo-active. How is hypoactivity quantified?)

·         Agression (relative to species)

(A perfectly tame and trustworthy wild caught Amethystine Python – Morelia Amethystinus would be considered an oddity, as would a truly violent Rosy Boa – Linchanura Trivirigata. Species specifics must be used.)

·         Sexual activity harassment

(Dependant upon whether you are stupid enough to have territorial or hierarchical conspecifics within the same enclosure. Even communal animals may display this behaviour)

(Warwick, Frye and Murphy 1995) – Bracketed text an expansion on original criteria.

The prevalence of rack systems now being kept by a more and more adept reptile keeping public, in a way questions this information. Stress as discussed earlier increases cortico-steriodal levels, reduces immuno-response (we’ll cover this in a moment) and effects gonadal activity. Yet more and more challenging and specialised species are being reproduced under these conditions every year. Once hard to reproduce species such a Bamboo Ratsnakes (Oreophis Porphoraceus  Coxi) and Hundred Flower Snakes (Orthriphis Moellendorfii) and being reproduced with significantly greater regularity. The latter species being famed as near impossible to keep let alone breed 10-15 years ago.

This increased breeding success of both commonplace and challenging species is surely also worth due note. Not all of us are big time commercial breeders but our responsibility never the less is surely to consider the suitability of an animal’s care and enclosure type in captivity. It’s not necessarily how much you produce but the manner and ethics used to produce it.